Greek Grammar Beyond the Basics

by Daniel B. Wallace, PhD.

Below is the chapter on Participles from Greek Grammar Beyond the Basics. We have posted this on our site because many of you may think that since you are not in the process of learning Greek or have already learned it, you don't need a Greek Grammar. However, understanding the grammar of the Greek New Testament is critical to proper interpretation and accurate exposition. But many complain-and not without some reason-that Greek grammars on the New Testament are difficult to read and access. All this has changed, however, with Greek Grammar beyond the Basics: An Exegetical Syntax of the New Testament. This easy to read grammar of the NT is a rich storehouse of important information and insights. Over 800 theologically significant passages are discussed at some length in the grammar, and most of the discussions are fairly comprehensible to even non-Greek readers. If someone wants to know what the NT teaches about an issue, and if that teaching is in any way related to Greek grammar, it will usually be discussed in this book. One need only consult the discussion of John 1:1 or Paul's recounting of Christ's "emptying" in Philippians 2:6 or the "Go and make disciples" of Matt 28:19 to see what we mean.

So there's no longer any need to fear the Greek New Testament or to avoid Greek in your study. The author, Dan Wallace, having taught Greek and New Testament studies for over two decades, has put together this material in a way that is clear, concise, and motivating for the student. The grammar is filled with numerous illustrations and anecdotes, making easy what would otherwise be difficult. Also, there are various charts and diagrams to make difficult concepts readily understandable to the student. Concise summaries of the material are included as well. No serious student of Scripture can afford to be without this excellent resource!

Be sure to read the section on Attendant Circumstance participles beginning on page 640. The section on Matt 28:19 begins on page 645. Every chapter is filled with such explanations.

Now that the Grammar is on CD-Rom, you can just type in the passage you're working on and you'll immediately see if there are any grammatical issues that will affect how you interpret your passage.

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The Participle

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Select Bibliography

BDF, 174-75, 212-20 (§339, 411-25); J. L. Boyer, "The Classification of Participles: A Statistical Study," GTJ 5 (1984) 163-79; Brooks-Winbery, 126-38; Burton, Moods and Tenses, 53-72, 163-77 (§115-56, 418-63); Dana-Mantey, 220-33 (§196-203); K. L. McKay, A New Syntax of the Verb in New Testament Greek: An Aspectual Approach (New York: Peter Lang, 1994) 60-66; Moule, Idiom Book, 99-105; Moulton, Prolegomena, 221-32; Porter, Idioms, 181-93; Robertson, Grammar, 1095-1141; Turner, Syntax, 150-62; Young, Intermediate Greek, 147-63; Zerwick, Biblical Greek, 125-31 (§360-77).

Introduction

It is often said that mastery of the syntax of participles is mastery of Greek syntax. Why are participles so difficult to grasp? The reason is threefold: (1) usage-the participle can be used as a noun, adjective, adverb, or verb (and in any mood!); (2) word order-the participle is often thrown to the end of the sentence or elsewhere to an equally inconvenient location; and (3) locating the main verb-sometimes it is verses away; sometimes it is only implied; and sometimes it is not even implied! In short the participle is difficult to master because it is so versatile. But this very versatility makes it capable of a rich variety of nuances, as well as a rich variety of abuses. The context has more influence on participles than on any other area of Greek grammar. In other words, for most participles, one cannot simply look at the structure (the presence or absence of the article is, of course, the most vital structural feature) to determine what kind of participle it is. There will be some clues, however, and the student must master these if he/she is to see the genuine semantic possibilities a participle can have in a given context. One's exegetical skills get tested more with participles than with any other part of speech. The participle is a declinable verbal adjective. It derives from its verbal nature tense and voice; from its adjectival nature, gender, number and case. Like the infinitive, the participle's verbal nature is normally seen in a dependent manner. That is, it is normally adverbial (in a broad sense) rather than functioning independently as a verb. Its adjectival side is seen in both
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substantival (independent) and adjectival (dependent) uses; both are frequent (though the substantival is far more so). The time of the participle's verbal nature requires careful consideration. Generally speaking, the tenses behave just as they do in the indicative. The only difference is that now the point of reference is the controlling verb, not the speaker. Thus, time in participles is relative (or dependent), while in the indicative it is absolute (or independent).

Chart 80

Time in Participles

The aorist participle, for example, usually denotes antecedent time to that of the controlling verb.1 But if the main verb is also aorist, this participle may indicate contemporaneous time.2 The perfect participle also indicates antecedent time. The present participle is used for contemporaneous time. (This contemporaneity, however, is often quite broadly conceived, depending in particular on the tense of the main verb.) The future participle denotes subsequent time.3

This general analysis should help us in determining whether a participle can even belong to a certain adverbial usage. For example, participles of purpose are normally future, sometimes present, (almost) never aorist or perfect.4 Why? Because the purpose of the

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controlling verb is carried out after the time of the main verb (or sometimes contemporaneously with it). Likewise, causal participles will not be in the future tense (though the perfect adverbial participle is routinely causal; the aorist often is and so is the present).5Result participles are never in the perfect tense. Participles of means? These are normally present tense, though the aorist is also amply attested (especially when a progressive aspect is not in view). Many an exegete has gone awry by ignoring these simple guidelines. As for the participle's aspect, it still functions for the most part like its indicative counterparts. There are two basic influences that shape the participle's verbal side, however, which are almost constant factors in its Aktionsart.6 First, because the participle has embodied two natures, neither one acts completely independently of the other. Hence, the verbal nature of participles has a permanent grammatical intrusion from the adjectival nature. This tends to dilute the strength of the aspect. Many nouns in Hellenistic Greek, for instance, in a former life were participles (e.g., ajrcitevktwn, a[rcwn, gevrwn, hJgemwvn, qeravpwn, kauvswn, tevktwn, ceivmwn). The constant pressure from the adjectival side finally caved in any remnants of verbal aspect. This is not to say that no participles in the NT are aspectually robust-many of them are! But one must not assume this to be the case in every instance. In particular when a participle is substantival, its aspectual force is more susceptible to reduction in force.

Secondly, many substantival participles in the NT are used in generic utterances. The pa'" oJ ajkouvwn (or ajgapw'n, poiw'n, etc.) formula is always or almost always generic. As such it is expected to involve a gnomic idea.7Most of these instances involve the present participle.8But if they are already gnomic, we would be

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hard-pressed to make something more out of them-such as a progressive idea.9 Thus, for example, in Matt 5:28, "everyone who looks at a woman" (pa'" oJ blevpwn gunai'ka)with lust in his heart does not mean "continually looking" or "habitually looking," any more than four verses later "everyone who divorces his wife" (pa'" oJ ajpoluvwn thVn gunai'ka aujtou') means "repeatedly divorces"! This is not to deny a habitual Aktionsart in such gnomic statements. But it is to say that caution must be exercised. In the least, we should be careful not to make statements such as, "The present participle blevpwn [in Matt 5:28] characterizes the man by his act of continued looking."10This may well be the meaning of the evangelist, but the present participle, by itself, can hardly be forced into this mold.11 As an adjective, a participle can function dependently or independently. That is, it can function like any ordinary adjective as an attributive or predicate. It also can act substantivally, as is the case with any adjective. All participles fit one of two categories (in keeping with the fact that they are verbal adjectives): Every participle emphasizes either its verbal or its adjectival aspect. Within each of these emphases, every participle is either dependent or independent. If one can keep this simple grid in mind, he/she will have a broad, organizational understanding of the participle.

Chart 81

The Semantic Range of the Participle

Although every participle fits under either an adjectival emphasis or verbal emphasis and is either dependent or independent, I have not

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listed one large category of participles (known as participles absolute). These will be treated separately from the above mentioned categories, even though they in fact fit under these categories. The reason for a separate treatment of the participle absolute is that it has particular structural clues (especially a specific case) that require further explanation.

Specific Uses

This category involves both the dependent and independent adjectival participles (i.e., both the adjectival proper and substantival). For a structural clue, the student should note the article: If it stands before a participle and functions as a modifying article (normal use) then that participle must be adjectival. If the participle does not have the article, it may be adjectival. Therefore, the first question one needs to ask when attempting to determine the nuance of a particular participle is, Does it have the article? If the answer is yes, it is adjectival;12 if the answer is no, it may be adjectival or any other kind of participle (such as adverbial). The participle may function just like an adjective and either modify a substantive (attributive) or assert something about it (predicate). The attributive participle is common; the predicate participle is rare.13 The way in which one determines whether a participle is attributive or predicate is exactly the same as when he/she determines whether an adjective is attributive or predicate. The adjectival participle may occupy any of the three attributive positions and both predicate positions. You should normally translate the attributive participle as though it were a
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relative clause (e.g., oJ pathvr sou oJ blevpwn ejn tw/' kruptw/' ajpodwvsei soi ["your Father who sees in secret will reward you"] in Matt 6:4).

As a refinement, therefore, we should add that a predicate participle never has the article (only the attributive and substantival participles do).


Matt 2:7 tou' fainomevnou ajstevro"
  the shining star
 
    An example in the first attributive position.
John 4:11 toV u{dwr toV zw'n
  the living water
 
    An example in the second attributive position. This is the most common construction for attributive participles.
John 4:25 Messiva" oJ legovmeno" cristov"
  Messiah the one called Christ
 
    This is in the third attributive position-a frequent construction with participles, but not with adjectives. Cf. also Luke 7:32; John 4:5; 5:2; Acts 1:12; 1 Cor 2:7; 1 Pet 1:7, 21.
John 4:10 u{dwr zw'n
  living water
 
    A fourth attributive construction. Cf. also Mark 14:51.

Cf. also Matt 4:16; 6:18; 7:13; 16:16; 17:17; Mark 1:38; 3:22; 6:2; 11:10; Luke 3:7; 15:6; John 1:6; 5:23; Acts 7:55; 13:43; Rom 12:3; 1 Cor 3:7; 2 Cor 8:20; Gal 3:23; 1 Tim 1:10; Heb 6:18; Rev 12:9.


Acts 7:56 ijdouV qewrw' touV" oujranouV" dihnoigmevnou"
  Behold, I see heaven opened
 
    This is second predicate position. The perfect (passive) participle, as here, especially seems to function as a predicate participle.14
Heb 4:12 zw'n oJ lovgo" tou' qeou'
  the word of God is living
 
    This is an illustration of the first predicate position.
Rom 12:1 parasth'sai taV swvmata uJmw'n qusivan zw'san aJgivan eujavreston tw/' qew/'
  present your bodies [as] a sacrifice-alive, holy, [and] acceptable to God
 
    The word qusivan is a complement in an object-complement construction and hence a predicate accusative. But the question about zw'san is whether it is attributive or predicate to qusivan, not swvmata. If attributive, it should be translated, "Present your bodies as a living
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    sacrifice ...." The issue is difficult to decide. But since the trailing adjectives are most likely predicate, the participle's close connection with them suggests that it, too, is predicate. This makes the statement more emphatic than an attributive adjective would. Nevertheless, as Robertson points out, "It is not always easy to draw the line between the anarthrous attributive participle and the predicate participle of additional statement."15
Jas 2:15 ejaVn ajdelfoV" h] ajdelfhV gumnoiV uJpavrcwsin kaiV leipovmenoi th'" ejfhmevrou trofh'"
  if your brother or sister is naked and lacking [their] daily food
 
    The participle is obviously predicate since it is linked by kaiv to a predicate adjective.

Cf. also Matt 7:14; 21:9; 27:37; Mark 6:2; Luke 12:28; 16:14; Acts 19:37; 2 Cor 6:14; 1 Tim 5:13; Heb 7:3; 2 Pet 1:19.

This is the independent use of the adjectival participle (i.e., not related to a noun). It functions in the place of a substantive. As such, it can function in virtually any capacity that a noun can, such as subject, direct object, indirect object, apposition, etc.16 This category is found quite frequently in the NT.17 First, of course, if the participle has the article it must be either adjectival (proper) or substantival. Second, if it is articular and is not related in a dependent fashion to any substantive in the sentence, then it is substantival. The translation is often the one who/the thing which with the participle then translated as a finite verb (e.g., oJ poiw'n is translated the one who does). The substantival participle may or may not be articular, although most are. Its case is determined just like any ordinary noun's case is determined, viz., by its function in the sentence.
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First, in relation to the infinitive, although participles and infinitives are often translated the same (especially when the infinitive is translated as a gerund), there is a distinct difference. "Whereas the infinitive is abstract, speaking of the act or fact of doing, the participle is concrete, speaking of the person who or thing which does."18

Second, with reference to its verbal nature: Just because a participle is adjectival or substantival, this does not mean that its verbal aspect is entirely diminished. Most substantival participles still retain something of their aspect. A general rule of thumb is that the more particular (as opposed to generic) the referent, the more of the verbal aspect is still seen. (See the introduction for detailed discussion.)

Third, the aspect of the present participle can be diminished if the particular context requires it.19 Thus, for example, oJ baptivzwn in Mark 1:4 does not mean "the one who continually baptizes" but simply "the baptizer."20 Indeed, it cannot mean this in Mark 6:14, for otherwise John would be baptizing without a head ("John the baptizer has been raised from the dead")!21 As well, it is probable that =Ihsou'n toVn rJuovmenon hJma'" ejk th'" ojrgh'" th'" ejrcomevnh" in 1 Thess 1:10 does not mean, "Jesus, the one continually delivering us ," but "Jesus, our deliverer from the wrath that is coming," as is evident by the prepositional phrase that refers to a future time. On the other hand, this passage may be similar to Heb 7:25 in that it could indicate that which (or the one who) continually delivers us from the imminent day of God's wrath.

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    use of the present participle of pisteuvw, especially in soteriological contexts in the NT.22
John 4:13 pa'" oJ pivnwn
  everyone who drinks
 
    It may be that the evangelist does have a habitual idea in mind (as well as the gnomic). The present participle is contrasted with the aorist subjunctive of the following verse, as if to say "everyone who continually drinks, but whoever should taste ."
John 6:39 tou'to dev ejstin toV qevlhma tou' pevmyantov" me
  now this is the will of the one who sent me
 
    This is an instance of a substantival participle functioning as a subjective gen. ("this is what the one who sent me wills").
Acts 1:16 =jIouvda oJdhgou' toi'" sullabou'sin =Ihsou'n
  Judas a guide to those who arrested Jesus
2 Th 2:6-7 nu'n toV katevcon oi[date (7) oJ katevcwn
  you know that which is presently restraining [him] (7) the one who is restraining
1 Tim 6:15 oJ basileuV" tw'n basileuovntwn kaiV kuvrio" tw'n kurieuovntwn
  the King of those who are reigning and Lord of those who are lording it (over) [others]
 
    Contrast this with the nouns in Rev 17:14: "Lord of lords and King of kings."

Cf. also Matt 1:22; 5:10; 22:3; Mark 13:13; 14:69; Luke 2:18; 19:32; 20:17; John 1:22; 5:11; 7:33; 18:21; Acts 4:4; 21:20; 1 Cor 12:3; Gal 1:6; 2 Tim 2:4; Jas 5:4; 1 John 3:9; 2 John 1; Rev 22:19.

This category involves those participles that emphasize the verbal over the adjectival nuance. The category includes both independent and (far more
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commonly) dependent verbal participles. By way of clarification, it should again be stated that the verbal element of any participle, whether it be adjectival or verbal in emphasis, is not usually absent (note the partial exceptions above in which the aspect is diminished, even though the voice still retains its force). However, when a participle is labeled as verbal, we simply indicate that its verbal nature is in the forefront. This is far and away the larger of the two categories and includes the following subcategories: adverbial (or circumstantial), attendant circumstance, indirect discourse, complementary, periphrastic, and redundant.23 The adverbial or circumstantial participle is grammatically subordinated to its controlling verb (usually the main verb of the clause). Like an ordinary adverb, the participle modifies the verb, answering the question, When? (temporal), How? (means, manner), Why? (purpose, cause), etc. Many grammars prefer to call this participle circumstantial. But that title is too vague.24 To call this participle adverbial communicates more clearly and fits the general idea better: Adverbial participles, like adverbs, are dependent on a verb. It has been suggested that this participle "is simply an adjective used to modify a verb, and hence may be appropriately called adverbial."25 But this is only partially true: The participle is a verbal adjective and hence its adverbial nature comes from the verbal side as well as the adjectival.26
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First, as we have said earlier, the context plays a major role in determining the force of the Greek participle. This is especially so with the adverbial participle. "The varieties in adverbial use come, not from alterations in the essential function of the participle, but from variations in the relation of its noun to the main verb and the context."27

Second, since the subject of the participle is usually the subject of a finite verb, the participle will usually be in the nominative case (almost 70% of the time).28

Third, there is often a strong translational correspondence between the English participle and the Greek (much more so than for the respective infinitives). In this respect, the participle is not too difficult to master.

Fourth, related to this, the English participle is generally more ambiguous than the Greek. Greek participles for the most part follow carefully defined patterns (e.g., word order, tense of participle, tense of controlling verb), allowing us to limit our choices in a given text more than we could if we depended on the English alone. It is for this reason that the student is encouraged to translate the force of the participle with more than an -ing gloss.

Most adverbial participles belong to one of eight categories: temporal, manner, means, cause, condition, concession, purpose, or result. In relation to its controlling verb, the temporal participle answers the question, When? Three kinds of time are in view: antecedent, contemporaneous, and subsequent. The antecedent participle should be translated after doing, after he did, etc. The contemporaneous participle should normally be translated while doing. And the subsequent participle should be translated before doing, before he does, etc.29 This usage is common.
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As we have said, the temporal participle answers the question, When? As well, if a particular adverbial participle is to be labeled as temporal, this should be the primary element the author wishes to stress (because almost all participles, whether adverbial or not, are temporal in at least a secondary sense).30

Therefore, once you have identified the temporal force of the participle, you should then go on and ask whether another, more specific semantic value is intended. (Although the temporal participle is commonly found, students tend to appeal to this category too often.) You should probe the participle's usage with questions such as, "Is the author only describing when this happened or is he also indicating why or how it happened?"

For example, Eph 1:19-20 speaks of the power of the resurrection in relation to the believer's sanctification: toV uJperbavllon mevgeqo" th'" dunavmew" aujtou' eij" hJma'" touV" pisteuvonta" kataV thVn ejnevrgeian tou' kravtou" th'" ijscuvo" aujtou', (20) h{n ejnhvrghsen ejn tw/' Cristw/' ejgeivra" aujtoVn ejk nekrw'n ("the surpassing greatness of his power toward us who believe, according to the working of the strength of his might, which he exercised in Christ when he raised/by raising him from the dead"). A temporal participle would focus on the time when God exercised this power (at the resurrection); a participle of means would focus on how God exercised this power. Both are true and the participle conveys both notions. The issue at stake is which one is being emphasized.

The aorist participle is normally, though by no means always, antecedent in time to the action of the main verb. But when the aorist participle is related to an aorist main verb, the participle will often be contemporaneous (or simultaneous) to the action of the main verb.
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This can be seen in the frequently used redundant participle in the formula ajpokriqeiV" ei\pen ("answering, he said"). The answering does not occur before the saying-it is the speaking.31

We see this in the epistles, too. In Eph 1:8-9 we read ejperivsseusen [thVn cavrin] eij" hJma'" gnwrivsa"hJmi'n ("He lavished [his grace] upon us making known to us"). It would be difficult to see God's action of making his grace known to us (thus, effectual) as other than contemporaneous with his lavishing such grace upon us.32

The NT is filled with theologically significant texts related to the temporal participle. Just within Eph 1, note the following: Eph 1:4-5 (ejxelevxatoproorivsa" [are election and predestination simultaneous or sequential?]); 1:13-14 (ajkouvsante" pisteuvsante" ejsfragivsqhte [does the Spirit seal believers after they believe the gospel, or when they believe?]);33 1:19-20 (although discussed earlier in another context, the issue here would be whether God's power was demonstrated after he raised Christ from the dead or when he raised him [ejnhvrghsenejgeivra"]).

With a present tense main verb, the aorist participle is usually antecedent in time.34

The present participle is normally contemporaneous in time to the action of the main verb. This is especially so when it is related to a present tense main verb (often, in fact, it follows a present imperative as a participle of means). But this participle can be broadly antecedent to the time of the main verb, especially if it is articular (and
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thus adjectival; cf. Mark 6:14; Eph 2:13). As well, the present participle is occasionally subsequent in a sense to the time of the main verb. This is so when the participle has a telic (purpose) or result flavor to it (cf. Eph 2:14). But as Robertson points out, "It is not strictly true that here the present participle means future or subsequent time. It is only that the purpose goes on coincident with the verb and beyond."35 The future participle is always subsequent in time to the action of the main verb (cf. Matt 27:49; Acts 8:27). The perfect participle is almost always antecedent with reference to the main verb. When it is contemporaneous, such is due to either an intensive use of the perfect or to a present force of the perfect in its lexical nuance.36

The following chart notes the tenses normally used for the various temporal relations, especially as these relate to the other adverbial uses of the participle.

Chart 82

The Tenses of Adverbial Participles


Matt 4:2 nhsteuvsa" u{steron ejpeivnasen
  after he fasted he then became hungry
Mark 2:14 paravgwn ei\den LeuiVn toVn tou' jAlfaivou
  while going on, he saw Levi, the son of Alphaeus
Mark 9:15 pa'" oJ o[clo" ijdovnte" aujtoVn ejxeqambhvqhsan
  when all the crowd saw him, they were amazed
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Eph 1:15-16 ajkouvsa" th'n kaq j uJma'" pivstin (*6) ouj pauvomai eujcaristw'n
  After I heardof your faith (16) I have not ceased being thankful
Phil 1:3-4 eujcaristw' (4) thVn devhsin poiouvmeno"
  I am thankful (4) when I pray
Rev 19:20 zw'nte" ejblhvqhsan oiJ duvo eij" thVn livmnhn tou' puroV"
  the two were thrown into the lake of fire while [still] alive

Cf. also Mark 1:19; 3:31; 5:22, 33; Luke 8:8; 10:33; 11:33; John 4:47; 9:1; Acts 1:4; 7:45; 8:40; 11:26; 14:18; Rom 5:10; 1 Cor 11:4; 2 Cor 10:1; Eph 4:8; Heb 1:3; 11:23; Rev 1:12.

The participle indicates the manner in which the action of the finite verb is carried out. First, there is much confusion between this participle and the participle of means. The reason is that both answer the question, How? However, beyond this initial question, there is usually little similarity. The participle of manner is relatively rare in comparison with the participle of means.37

Second, pragmatically, the participle of manner refers to the emotion (or sometimes attitude)38 that accompanies the main verb. In this sense, it "adds color" to the story. It could appropriately be called the participle of style. This contrasts with the participle of means, which defines the action of the main verb. The key question that must be asked is, Does this participle explain or define the action of the main verb (means), or does it merely add extra color to the action of the main verb (manner)?

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Matt 19:22 ajph'lqen lupouvmeno"
  he went away grieving
 
    Notice that the participle does answer the question, "How?" but it does not define the mode of transportation. If we were to ask, "How did he go away?" grieving would be a participle of manner, while walking would be a participle of means.
Luke 8:47 trevmousa h\lqen
  she came trembling
Acts 2:13 e{teroi deV diacleuavzonte" e[legon
  but others mocking were saying
Acts 5:41 ejporeuvonto caivronte"
  they went on their way rejoicing
 
    This participle gives us quite a bit of the flavor of the narrative; since it adds flavor, it is a "color commentator." This is the function of the participle of manner.

Cf. also Luke 2:48; 7:38; John 20:11; Phil 3:18.

This participle indicates the means by which the action of a finite verb is accomplished. This means may be physical or mental. This usage is common. First, as we pointed out above, both the participle of manner and the participle of means answer the question, How? Thus, there is some confusion between the two.

Second, one should supply by or by means of before the participle in translation. If this does not fit, it is not a participle of means.

Third, there are some further guidelines that the student should employ to distinguish between means and manner:

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Fourth, the participle of means could be called an epexegetical participle in that it defines or explains the action of the controlling verb. This participle is frequently used with vague, general, abstract, or metaphorical finite verbs. Further, it usually follows its verb.40 The reason for these two features (one lexical, the other structural) is that the participle explains the verb. If the verb needs explaining, then it is the vaguer term. For example, in Matt 27:4 Judas says, "I have sinned (h{marton) by betraying (paradouv") innocent blood." The verb comes first and is general in its lexical range. This is followed by the participle of means, which defines more exactly what the verbal action is.

One should note as well that the participle of means is almost always contemporaneous with the time of the main verb. (This, of course, should be obvious, for if the participle of means defines how the action of the main verb is accomplished, then it accompanies it in time.41)


Matt 27:4 h{marton paradouV" ai|ma ajqw'/on
  I have sinned by betraying innocent blood
Acts 9:22 Sau'lo" sunevcunnen touV" =Ioudaivou" sumbibavzwn o{ti ou|tov" ejstin oJ cristov".
  Saul confounded the Jews by proving that [Jesus] was the Christ.
1 Cor 4:12 kopiw'men ejrgazovmenoi tai'" ijdivai" cersivn
  we labor, by working with our own hands
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Eph 1:20 h{n ejnhvrghsen ejgeivra" aujtoVn ejk nekrw'n
  which he exercised by raising him from the dead
Eph 2:14-15 oJ poihvsa" taV ajmfovtera e{n (15) toVn novmon katarghvsa"
  the one who made both [groups] one (15) by nullifying the law
Titus 1:11 oi{tine" o{lou" oi[kou" ajnatrevpousin didavskonte" a} mhV dei'
  who upset whole houses by teaching things that they should not
1 Pet 5:6-7 tapeinwvqhte uJpoV thVn krataiaVn cei'ra tou' qeou' (7) pa'san thVn mevrimnan uJmw'n ejpirivyante" ejp= aujtovn, o{ti aujtw/' mevlei periV uJmw'n.42
  Humble yourselves43 under the mighty hand of God (7) by casting your cares on him, because he cares for you.
 
    Although treated as an independent command in several modern translations (e.g., RSV, NRSV, NIV), the participle should be connected with the verb of v 6, tapeinwvqhte. As such, it is not offering a new command, but is defining how believers are to humble themselves. Taking the participle as means enriches our understanding of both verbs: Humbling oneself is not a negative act of self-denial per se, but a positive one of active dependence on God for help.44
Phil 2:7 eJautoVn ejkevnwsen morfhVn douvlou labwvn
  he emptied himself by taking on the form of a servant
 
    This text satisfies the regular criteria for a participle of means: (1) The participle follows the verb; and (2) the verb is vague, almost begging to be defined. Taking it as a result participle is problematic, since it is aorist; leaving as temporal leaves the meaning of ejkevnwsen unexplained (and such an act is not explained otherwise in the following verses). The biggest difficulty with seeing labwvn as means is that emptying is normally an act of subtraction, not addition. But the imagery should not be made to walk on all fours. As an early hymn, it would be expected to have a certain poetic license. Further, Paul seems to have hinted at this meaning in his instructions to the saints in v 3: "[Think] nothing from selfishness or conceit (kenodoxivan)." The Philippians were told not to puff themselves up with "empty glory" (kenodoxivan), because Christ was an example of one who emptied his glory. If this connection is intentional, then the Carmen Christi has the following force:
      Do not elevate yourselves on empty glory, but follow the example of Christ, who, though already elevated (on God's level), emptied his glory by veiling it in humanity.

Cf. also Matt 6:27; 28:19-20; Acts 9:8; 16:16; 27:38; Rom 12:20; Eph 4:28; Phil 1:30; 2:2-4; 1 Tim 1:6; 4:16; 2 Pet 2:15 (unless causal); 3:6.

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The causal participle indicates the cause or reason or ground of the action of the finite verb. This is a common usage. This participle answers the question, Why? The thought of this participle can be brought out by since or because. (Because is normally preferable, however, in that since is often used of a temporal rather than a causal nuance.)

Two further clues (one on the tenses used, the other on word order) should be noted. (1) Aorist and perfect participles are amply represented, but the present participle is also frequently found here.45 (2) The causal participle normally precedes the verb it modifies. Thus, form follows function (i.e., the cause of an action precedes the action).46


Matt 1:19 =Iwsh'f divkaio" w[n
  Joseph because he was a righteous man
John 4:6 oJ =Ihsou'" kekopiakwV" ejkaqevzeto
  because Jesus was wearied he sat
 
    Adverbial perfect participles almost always belong to this category.47
John 11:38 =Ihsou'" ou\n pavlin ejmbrimwvmeno" e[rcetai eij" toV mnhmei'on48
  Then Jesus, because he was deeply moved came to the tomb.
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Acts 7:9 oiJ patriavrcai zhlwvsante" toVn =IwshVf ajpevdonto eij" jAi[gupton
  because the patriarchs were jealous of Joseph, they sold him to Egypt
Acts 16:34 hjgalliavsato panoikeiV pepisteukwV" tw/' qew/'
  he rejoiced with his whole house because he had believed in God
 
    Although not frequent, causal participles can follow their controlling verbs, as here.
Phil 1:6 pepoiqwV" aujtoV tou'to
  since I am confident of this very thing

Cf. also Luke 9:33; John 4:45; 12:6; 13:3; 18:10; Acts 2:30; Rom 6:6; Phil 1:25; 1 Thess 1:4; 2 Tim 3:14; Titus 3:11; 2 Pet 1:14.

This participle implies a condition on which the fulfillment of the idea indicated by the main verb depends. Its force can be introduced by if in translation. This usage is fairly common.49 This participle is almost always equivalent to the third class condition (usually representing some sense of uncertainty) rather than to the first class condition.50 As well, this usage overlaps with the participle of means at times.
Matt 21:22 pavnta o{sa a]n aijthvshte ejn th/' proseuch/' pisteuvonte" lhvmyesqe.
  Whatever you ask for in prayer, if you believe, you will receive it.
Luke 9:25 tiv gaVr wjfelei'tai a[nqrwpo" kerdhvsa" toVn kovsmon o{lon eJautoVn deV ajpolevsa"51
  For how does it benefit a person if he should gain the whole world but if he loses himself?
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Gal 6:9 qerivsomen mhV ejkluovmenoi
  we shall reap if we do not lose heart
1 Tim 4:4 oujdeVn ajpovblhton metaV eujcaristiva" lambanovmenon
  nothing is to be rejected if it is received with thanks

Cf. also Luke 15:4 (cf. Matt 18:12); Acts 15:29 (or means); 18:21 (gen. absolute); Rom 2:27; 7:3; 1 Cor 6:1; 8:10; 11:29;52 Col 2:20; 1 Tim 4:6 (or means); 6:8; Heb 2:3; 7:12; 10:26; 11:32; 1 Pet 3:6; 2 Pet 1:10 (or means).


1 Tim 3:10 ou|toi deV dokimazevsqwsan prw'ton, ei\ta diakoneivtwsan ajnevgklhtoi o[nte".
  But let them be tested first, then, if they are blameless, let them serve as deacons.
 
    The English translation sounds as if deacons could be selected from a pool of qualified individuals. This reading of the text assumes that o[nte" is a conditional participle and that diakoneivtwsan is a permissive imperative. However, the participle might be substantival and the imperative more likely is a command: "Let them be tested first, then those who are blameless should become deacons." If so, then all those who qualified to become deacons would fill the office.
Heb 6:4-6 ajduvnaton touV" a{pax fwtisqevnta" (6) kaiV parapesovnta", pavlin ajnakainivzein eij" metavnoian
  it is impossible to restore again to repentance those who have once been enlightened (6) if they have fallen away
 
    parapesovnta" is often construed as conditional (a tradition found in the KJV and repeated in most modern translations and by many commentators). But this is unwarranted. The construction of vv 4-6 approximates a Granville Sharp plural construction (the only difference being that with the second participle in the construction, geusamevnou" in v 4, the conjunction te is used instead of kaiv: touV" fwtisqevnta"geusamevnou" te kaiV metovcou"genhqevnta" kaiV geusamevnou"kaiV parape-sovnta").53If this participle should be taken adverbially, then should we not take the preceding two or three participles the same way? The inconsistency has little basis. Instead, parapesovnta" should be taken as adjectival, thus making a further and essential qualification of the entire group.54 A better translation, then, is "It is impossible to restore again to repentance those who have once been enlightened and have fallen away."
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The concessive participle implies that the state or action of the main verb is true in spite of the state or action of the participle. Its force is usually best translated with although. This category is relatively common. First, this is semantically the opposite of the causal participle, but structurally identical (i.e., it typically precedes the verb and fits the contours of a causal participle-i.e., antecedent time and thus aorist, perfect or sometimes present). Second, there are often particles that help to make the concessive idea more obvious (such as kaivper, kaivtoige, ktl.).
Mark 8:18 ojfqalmouV" e[conte" ouj blevpete kaiV w\ta e[conte" oujk ajkouvete;
  Although you have eyes, do you not see? And although you have ears, do you not hear?
Rom 1:21 gnovnte" toVn qeoVn oujc wJ" qeoVn ejdovxasan
  although they knew God, they did not honor him as God
Eph 2:1 uJma'" o[nta" nekrouv"
  although you were dead
1 Pet 1:8 o}n oujk ijdovnte" ajgapa'te55
  although you have not seen him, you love him
Phil 2:6 o{" ejn morfh'/ qeou' uJpavrcwn
  who, although he existed in the form of God
 
    The translation of this participle as concessive is not entirely clear upon a casual reading of the text. The two options are either causal or concessive.

    There are two interpretive problems in Phil 2:6-7 relevant to the treatment of this participle. First, of course, is the grammatical problem of whether this is concessive or causal. Second is the lexical problem of whether aJrpagmovn in v 6 means robbery or a thing to be grasped. The grammatical and the lexical inform one another and cannot be treated separately. Thus, if uJpavrcwn is causal, aJrpagmovn means robbery ("who, because he existed in God's form, did not consider equality with God as robbery"); if uJpavrcwn is concessive, then aJrpagmovn means a thing to be grasped ("who, although he existed in God's form, did not consider equality with God as a thing to be grasped"). As attractive as the first alternative might be theologically, it is not satisfactory. Ultimately, this
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    verse cannot be interpreted in isolation, but must be seen in light of the positive statement in v 7-"but he emptied himself" (the participle uJpavrcwn equally depends on both hJghvsato and ejkevnwsen). Only the concessive idea for the participle and a thing to be grasped translation for aJrpagmovn fit well with v 7.56

Cf. also John 10:33; Acts 5:7; 2 Cor 11:23; Phil 3:4; Heb 5:8.

The participle of purpose indicates the purpose of the action of the finite verb. Unlike other participles, a simple "-ing" flavor will miss the point. Almost always this can (and usually should) be translated like an English infinitive. This usage is somewhat common. First, to clarify that a particular participle is telic (purpose), one can either translate it as though it were an infinitive, or simply add the phrase with the purpose of before the participle in translation.

Second, since purpose is accomplished as a result of the action of the main verb, perfect participles are excluded

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from this category (since they are typically antecedent in time). The future adverbial participle always belongs here;57 the present participle frequently does. The aorist participle also has a representative or two, but this is unusual.58

Third, many present participles that fit this usage are lexically influenced. Verbs such as seek (zhtevw) or signify (shmaivnw), for example, involve the idea of purpose lexically.

Fourth, the telic participle almost always follows the controlling verb.59 Thus, the word order emulates what it depicts. Some participles, when following their controlling verbs, virtually demand to be taken as telic (e.g., peiravzw).60

This participle, like the participle of cause, answers the question, Why? But the participle of purpose looks forward, while the participle of cause looks back. As well, the difference between the participle of purpose and the infinitive of purpose is that the participle emphasizes the actor while the infinitive emphasizes the action.
Matt 27:49 eij e[rcetai jHliva" swvswn aujtovn
  if Elijah is going to come [with the purpose of] saving him
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Luke 10:25 nomikov" ti" ajnevsth ejkpeiravzwn aujtoVn levgwn: didavskale, tiv poihvsa" zwhVn aijwvnion klhronomhvsw
  a certain lawyer stood up to test him, saying, "Teacher, what must I do to gain eternal life?"61
Luke 13:7 ijdouV triva e[th ajf= ou| e[rcomai zhtw'n karpovn
  behold, for the last three years I have come [for the purpose of] seeking fruit
John 12:33 tou'to deV e[legen shmaivnwn poivw/ qanavtw/ h[mellen ajpoqnh/vskein.
  Now he said this to signify by what sort of death he would die.
Acts 3:26 ajpevsteilen aujtoVn eujlogou'nta uJma'"
  he sent him [for the purpose of] blessing you

Cf. also Matt 16:1; 19:3; 22:35; 27:55; Mark 1:13; 8:11; 10:2; Luke 2:45; 4:2; 10:25; 11:16; John 6:6, 24; 18:32; 21:19; Acts 8:27; 22:5; 24:11, 17; 25:13; Rom 15:25; 1 Cor 4:14; 16:2.

The participle of result is used to indicate the actual outcome or result of the action of the main verb.62 It is similar to the participle of purpose in that it views the end of the action of the main verb, but it is dissimilar in that the participle of purpose also indicates or emphasizes intention or design, while result emphasizes what the action of the main verb actually accomplishes. This usage is somewhat common.63 First, the participle of result is not necessarily opposed to the participle of purpose. Indeed, many result participles describe the result of an action that was also intended. The difference between the two, therefore, is primarily one of emphasis. The relation between purpose and result might be visually represented thus.
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Chart 83

The Semantic Overlap of Purpose and Result Participles

Second, there are two types of result participle:

The result participle will be a present tense participle and will follow (in word order) the main verb. The student should insert the phrase with the result of before the participle in translation in order to see if the participle under examination is indeed a result participle.
Mark 9:7 ejgevneto nefevlh ejpiskiavzousa aujtoi'"
  a cloud came [with the result that it] covered them
Luke 4:15 aujtoV" ejdivdasken ejn tai'" sunagwgai'" aujtw'n doxazovmeno" uJpoV pavntwn.
  He taught in their synagogues, [with the result that he was] being glorified by all.
John 5:18 patevra i[dion e[legen toVn qeoVn i[son eJautoVn poiw'n tw/' qew/'.
  He was calling God his own Father, [with the result of] making himself equal to God.
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Eph 2:15 i{na touV" duvo ktivsh/ ejn aujtw'/ eij" e{na kainoVn a[nqrwpon poiw'n eijrhvnhn
  in order that he might create in himself the two into one new man, [with the result of] making peace
Eph 5:19-21 plhrouvsqe ejn pneuvmati (19) lalou'nte" a[/donte" kaiV yavllonte" (20) eujcaristou'nte" (21) uJpotassovmenoi
  Be filled with the Spirit (19) [with the result of] speaking singing and making melody (20) being thankful (21) being submissive.
 
    In this text the five participles are debatable. Some have suggested means, manner, attendant circumstance, and even imperatival! As we have already seen, manner is not too likely if we follow the axiom that the idea of the main verb (in this case, plhrou'sqe in 5:18) would not be removed if these participles were absent. As we shall see later, attendant circumstance and imperatival participles are rarely, if ever, found in a construction such as the one in this text. Means fits well with the grammar of the passage (viz., the participle of means is often used in the present tense after a present imperative). But it may not fit well with the theology of the Pauline epistles64-i.e., it would be almost inconceivable to see this text suggesting that the way in which one is to be Spirit-filled is by a five-step, partially mechanical formula!65 Result may fit well both syntactically and exegetically: Result participles are invariably present participles that follow the main verb; as well, the idea of result here would suggest that the way in which one measures his/her success in fulfilling the command of 5:18 is by the participles that follow (notice the progressive difficulty: from speaking God's word to being thankful for all, to being submissive to one another; such progression would, of course, immediately suggest that this filling is not instantaneous and absolute but progressive and relative). There are other arguments for the idea of result in these participles that we will have to forego. Suffice it to say here that the issue is an important one in light of the popularity and abuse of the command in Eph 5:18 (especially in evangelical circles).

Cf. also Mark 7:13; Heb 12:3; Jas 1:4 (possible); 2:9; 1 Pet 3:5 (unless means); 2 Pet 2:1, 6.

As we have seen, there are eight kinds of adverbial participles: temporal, manner, means, cause, condition, concession, purpose, and result. Yet it should be stressed that the participle in itself means none of these ideas. The participle in Greek follows certain contours.
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By observing the tense, word order, context, and lexemes of the verb and participle, you can usually narrow down its possibilities. Paying careful attention to the semantic situation of each adverbial participle is vital to sound exegesis. The attendant circumstance participle is used to communicate an action that, in some sense, is coordinate with the finite verb. In this respect it is not dependent, for it is translated like a verb. Yet it is still dependent semantically, because it cannot exist without the main verb. It is translated as a finite verb connected to the main verb by and. The participle then, in effect, "piggy-backs" on the mood of the main verb. This usage is relatively common, but widely misunderstood.66 First, we are treating this participle as a dependent verbal participle because it never stands alone. That is, an attendant circumstance will always be related to a finite verb. Although it is translated as a finite verb, it derives its "mood" (semantically, not syntactically) from that of the main verb.

Second, it is important to argue from sense rather than from translation. In order to see more clearly what the sense of a participle will be, we need to apply the following criterion: If a participle makes good sense when treated as an adverbial participle, we should not seek to treat it as attendant circumstance. This will reduce the instances to those that are undisputed. From that we can extrapolate a "profile" as it were of what this participle should look like.

Third, the confusion has arisen over a couple of things: loose translation67 and mixing the participle of result in with the attendant circumstance participle (see earlier discussion).

Is the attendant circumstance participle valid? Some grammarians deny its validity; others see it very frequently. In our view, it is both clearly valid and relatively frequent. It should be noted that what is
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at stake is the interpretation of scores of passages. Hence, the discussion in this section is unusually long.

Consider, for example, Matt 2:13. The angel is speaking to Joseph and says: ejgerqeiV" paravlabe toV paidivon kaiV thVn mhtevra aujtou' kaiV feu'ge ("Rise and take the child and his mother and flee!"). There is really only one good possibility for ejgerqeiv" as an adverbial participle-temporal. (The others, as you can think through them for yourself, make little sense.) If temporal, then it is more than likely antecedent to the action of the main verbs (though in close proximity). But such an idea would not convey the urgency of the command ("After you have arisen, take and go "). Such a translation would suggest that the time when Joseph was to rise was an option; it was only that once he did rise, he was to obey the angelic command. The attendant circumstance participle fits far better here-the mood of the two main verbs is picked up by the participle ("Rise and take and go "). It is apparent that Joseph was commanded not only to take his family and flee, but also to rise immediately.

Matthew 2:13 illustrates several important criteria for the attendant circumstance participle: (1) The context made it clear that no adverbial participial category would do justice to the use of this participle; (2) the context made it equally clear that the true force of this participle (semantically) was that of an imperative-it was part of the command; and (3) the participle was related to an imperative. Finally, one should note that in Matt 2:14, we see Joseph's response: ejgerqeiV" parevlaben nuktov" (he rose and took during the night"). The evangelist uses nuktov" to emphasize immediate obedience to the angelic vision. In other words, the participle in both v 13 and v 14 is attendant circumstance. The difference between the verses is that the mood of the main verb has changed and therefore the "mood" of the participle changes, too.

In conclusion, we can say that Matt 2:13-14 is a clear passage in which the attendant circumstance participle is valid and is valid with both imperatives and indicatives as main verbs.68

In the NT (as well as other ancient Greek literature) certain structural patterns emerge regarding the attendant circumstance participle. These are not absolute. We might, however, say that they follow a "90% rule." That is to say, all five of the following features occur in at least 90% of the instances of attendant
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circumstance. The conclusion from this is that if these five features are not present (or if one or two of them are not present), to label a participle as attendant circumstance needs strong corroborative evidence. It is not impossible, of course, but one should double-check the other possibilities before he/she so tags the participle. The five features are: These criteria can be illustrated with our example from Matt 2:13-14. Verse 13 has an aorist participle (ejgerqeiV") followed by an aorist imperative (paravlabe). Verse 14 has an aorist participle (ejgerqeiV")followed by an aorist indicative (parevlaben). Two things should be noted about the semantics of this participle. First, the attendant circumstance participle has something of an ingressive force to it. That is, it is often used to introduce a new action or a shift in the narrative. This contrasts with the adverbial participles and becomes a key for identifying this usage.

Second, the relative semantic weight in such constructions is that a greater emphasis is placed on the action of the main verb than

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on the participle. That is, the participle is something of a prerequisite before the action of the main verb can occur. Joseph had to get up before he could take Mary and Jesus to Egypt. But the getting up was not the main event-it was leaving town that counted!72
Matt 9:13 poreuqevnte" deV maqevte tiv ejstin
  Now go and learn what this means
Matt 9:18a ijdouV a[rcwn ei|" proselqwVn prosekuvnei aujtw'/
  Behold, a ruler came and bowed down before him
 
    This is an example of an aorist participle followed by an imperfect indicative. Such does occur rarely. Much more common is a historical present as the main verb.73
Matt 9:18b hJ qugavthr mou a[rti ejteleuvthsen: ajllaV ejlqwVn ejpivqe" thVn cei'rav sou ejp= aujthvn, kaiV zhvsetai.
  My daughter has just now died, but come and place your hand on her and she will live.
 
    As is almost always the case, the main idea is found in the main verb ("place [your hand on her]"); the coming is a necessary prerequisite, however.
Matt 28:7 tacuV poreuqei'sai ei[pate toi'" maqhtai'" aujtou' o{ti hjgevrqh ajpoV tw'n nekrw'n
  Go quickly and tell his disciples that [Jesus] has been raised from the dead.
Luke 5:11 ajfevnte" pavnta hjkolouvqhsan aujtw'/
  they left everything and followed him
 
    Had Luke used two indicatives there would have been more equal weight to them. With the attendant circumstance participle, however, the focus of the text is not on what the disciples left (such was necessary to follow an itinerant preacher), but on their following Jesus.
Luke 5:14 ajpelqwVn dei'xon seautoVn tw/' iJerei'
  Go and show yourself to the priest
Luke 16:6 kaqivsa" tacevw" gravyon penthvkonta74
  Sit down quickly and write fifty
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Luke 17:19 ajnastaV" poreuvou
  Rise and go
 
    Here we have the infrequent structure of aorist participle with present imperative.
Acts 5:5 ajkouvwn deV oJ `Ananiva" touV" lovgou" touvtou" peswVn ejxevyuxen
  but when Ananias heard these words, he fell down and died
 
    The participle at the front of the clause is present and temporal; the following aorist participle is attendant circumstance. Again, the semantics here follow the normal contours of this participial usage: The main point was not that Ananias fell down but that he died.
Acts 10:13 ajnastav", Pevtre, qu'son kaiV favge.
  Rise, Peter, and kill and eat.
Acts 16:9 diabaV" eij" Makedonivan bohvqhson hJmi'n
  Come over to Macedonia and help us
Heb 12:1 o[gkon ajpoqevmenoi pavntatrevcwmen
  let us lay aside every burden and run
 
    Notice that we see two of the five structural guidelines in this text (aorist participle preceding main verb). The three differences here are: (1) the tense of the main verb is present, (2) the mood of the main verb is subjunctive;75 and (3) this is not narrative. Nevertheless, the primary criterion for determining whether a particular participle is attendant circumstance is sense, not structure. And the sense fits well here: The participle derives its "mood" from that of the main verb (a hortatory subjunctive-which is nevertheless semantically equivalent to an imperative). No adverbial participial category does justice to this text.76

Cf. also Matt 2:8, 20; 9:6; 11:4; 17:7, 27; 21:2; 22:13; 28:7; Luke 4:40; 7:22; 13:32; 14:10; 17:7, 14; 19:5; 30; 22:8; Acts 1:24; 2:23; 5:6; 9:11; 10:20; 11:7.


Eph 5:19-21 plhrou'sqe ejn pneuvmati (19) lalou'nte"a[/donte" kaiV yavllonte" (20) eujcaristou'nte" (21) uJpotassovmenoi
  be filled by the Spirit (19) and speak and sing and make melody (20) and be thankful (21) and be submissive
 
    Some exegetes take these participles to indicate attendant circumstance. But attendant circumstance participles are rarely, if ever, found in a construction such as the one in this text (not only are the participles following the verb, but both main verb and participles are present tense). A distinction needs to be made between result and attendant circumstance. Seeing no distinction between the two would make the participles coordinate commands, while taking them as result would
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    regard them more as the overflow of one who is Spirit-filled (cf. Gal 5:22-23 for a similar idea).
Mt 28:19-20 poreuqevnte" ou\n maqhteuvsate pavnta taV e[qnh, baptivzonte" aujtouV" eij" toV o[noma tou' patroV" kaiV tou' uiJou' kaiV tou' aJgivou pneuvmato", (20) didavskonte"
  Go, therefore, and make disciples of all the nations, baptizing them in the name of the Father and of the Son and of the Holy Spirit, (20) teaching